The Psychological Essay Example Pdf - Free Essay Example

Introduction The psychological contract (TPC) was first coined by Argyris (1960), who observed an unwritten agreement existed between employer and employee, summarising that staff performed to a higher level if they received fair wages and had a degree of autonomy in the manner in which they worked. TPC consists of expectations, beliefs and implied obligations; none of which are written in the tangible contract between the employer and employee (Schein, 1985). Rousseau (1995, P.9) developed this idea and defined TPC as individual beliefs, shaped by the organisation, regarding the terms of an exchange agreement between the individual and their organisation. This essay will proceed to discuss the importance for organisations of managing the psychological contract (TPC) and the implications of a breach. The essay will move on to critically analyse the difficulties organisations face in managing TPC, with particular reference to those resultant of the shift from the traditional to the contemporary employment relationship. This essay concludes with a brief summary of the importance of managing TPC and the key challenges which arise when attempting to do so. The importance of managing the psychological contract Fulfilment of TPC from employers has been proven to result in reciprocation from employees, leading to positive organisational attitudes, affective commitment (Tekleab Taylor, 2000) and reduced turnover intention (Montes Zweig, 2009), which lowers an organisations recruitment and training costs, therefore it increases its efficiency (Wilton, 2013). A balanced PC is linked with organisational citizenship behaviour (Decktop, Mangel and Cirka, 1999) and high employee engagement meaning the employee has a high level of commitment to the organisation and its values, and exhibits willingness to help their colleagues (CIPD, 2009). Due to TPC consisting of unarticulated beliefs, expectations and perceived obligations breaches are not uncommon (Wilton, 2013) as neither party can ever fully know what the other expects of them (Cullinane and Dundon, 2006). Social Exchange theory undergirds TPC postulating that employees and employers engage in exchanges with each reciprocating the contr ibution of the other (Blau, 1964). In line with the theory of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960), when employers do not fulfil their implied or understood obligations a breach of TPC can occur, resulting in the employee reciprocating by withholding their effort from work (Bal, Chiaburu, Jansen, 2010), negative organisational attitudes (Piccoli and De Witte, 2015), reduced performance (Restubog, Bordia, Bordia, 2011) and workplace deviance (Bordia, Restubog, Tang, 2008). Many organisations attempt to manage TPC in order to mitigate these potentially harmful effects. A breach of TPC can occur for reasons such as implementation of large scale organisational change often without employee consultation (Gerber et al, 2012). Resistance to change can be extremely problematic for organisations, and the adjustment period to such change can cause vast decreases in efficiency leading to loss of competitive advantage (Dawson and Andriopoulos, 2014). Heuvel, Schalk and Assen (2015) found organisa tions which communicated their full intentions of change with employees implemented large scale organisational change with lower levels of resistance, due to perceived fulfilment of TPC. This suggests balancing TPC can reduce the resistance to change many employees experience and help to mitigate the potential for loss of competitive advantage. A study by Atkinson (2007) discovered the expectations within TPC widely vary between individuals and organisations, Restubog et al, (2015) found that an aggressive and competitive culture within an organisation exacerbated any breach of TPC and increased the likelihood of employees actively seeking revenge. This suggests that organisations requiring their employees to behave in a highly competitive manner are at greater risk of negative effects from TPC breach and should take necessary measures to minimise the likelihood of this occurrence (Bankins, 2015), as the effects on the organisation will likely be more damaging than if the employe e were to simply withhold their effort or decide to leave the firm. Rousseau (1995) implied that within TPC the employer was the independent variable and the employee the dependant variable, believing the employment relationship to be dependant on the actions of the employer and their ability to recognise and meet the expectations of the employee, however this proved contentious. Theorists such as Guest and Conway (2002) advance that TPC is subject to both parties meeting the others expectations rather than just the employer meeting the employees, and concluded that the state of TPC is dependent on mutual trust, fairness and delivery of the deal. The following section will discuss the ways in which organisations can attempt to manage TPC and the difficulties that arise in doing so, with particular reference to the contemporary employment relationship. The challenges of managing the psychological contract The dynamics of the labour market have constantly changed and evolved over time (Wilton, 2013), in particular the rise in organisational demand for flexibility has resulted in a paradigm shift from an exchange of job security in return for organisational loyalty to one in which experience is offered to the individual in exchange for temporary service to improve their future employability (Adamson, Dochetry and Viney 1998). Resultantly the contemporary employment relationship can be seen as much more individualised, with Rousseau (2004) terming this as a shift from a relational to a transactional employment relationship. The new PC consists of employee assurances to work hard and be flexible and employers obligation to provide adequate pay, opportunities for skill development and interesting work (CIPD, 2009). A prevalent issue in managing TPC is known as multiple agency (Hui, Lee and Wang, 2015). This refers to employees receiving different messages from the different managers t hey come into contact with within the organisation. It is therefore imperative for an organisation to ensure that they manage to maintain congruency in their messages throughout their organisation (Lapalme, Simard and Tremblay, 2011). Wilton (2013) suggests that an organisation must utilise a mechanism through which clear communication can be ensured between employer and employee in order to explain managerial decisions and give a platform for employees to voice their opinions. This is in line with Guest and Conways (2002) findings that employee voice in relation to managerial decisions positively influenced TPC. Internal social media is an increasingly popular method for firms to improve internal communications within their organisation and promote the brand internally in order to positively influence TPC (Mazzei, 2010). Ironically the implementation of internal social media is exactly the type of large scale organisational change which, without the correct communications could enc ounter significant resistance to change (Dawson and Andriopoulos, 2014) and result in a PC breach. Critics of social media note that it is impossible to regulate (Jones, 2015), as such employees could use this platform to exact revenge for a perceived breach of TPC in a more public and far reaching way than before, so organisations should exact caution when implementing this as a strategy for managing TPC. Organisational policies which are adopted in the favour of the workforce will likely positively effect TPC and result in improved workforce efficiency. This systematic adaption of a corporations policies to improve their attractiveness as an employer is known as employer branding (Taylor, 2005), however while this can positively affect TPC, organisations perusing this strategy must be aware that those with stronger employer branding must work harder to maintain TPC due to raised employee expectations (Bains, 2015). Bowen (2015) cites generational differences in comfortability util ising social media platforms, and so using internal social media to give employees a voice could potentially alienate some of the workforce, which if not addressed, could result in a breach of TPC. In order to mitigate this risk, training could be provided on the platform, which will likely have a positive impact on TPC as it is in line with the new psychological contract which emphasises the employer providing training and new skills for employees (CIPD, 2009). A challenge for organisations attempting to manage TPC within this contemporary relationship is the generational diversity of the workforce. (Lyons,and Kuron, 2014). Lub et al (2015) found that different generations held very different expectations of their employers obligation and their own personal contribution to that organisation, suggesting that a multi-generational cohort solution offers the most effective way to maintain a positive psychological contract with the workforce. In countries with an aging workforce like the United Kingdom the generational diversity is likely to be extremely high (Hertel and Zacher, 2015), making it costly and time consuming for management to implement policies to balance the psychological contract for all. This could therefore constitute an area for further research, in order to realise the most efficient way to collectively manage the expectations of such a diverse workforce. It is not only generation diversity which has increased within the modern employment relationship, there has also been rapid growth of a cultural diversity within the global workforce due to the phenomena of globalisation resulting in what is known as the global workforce (Ryan and Wessel, 2015). Some commentators argue that many of the theoretical frameworks within HRM are underpinned by western cultural values, and that perspective which much of the HRM discourse is written from does not hold a universally applicable view of employment attitudes to authority or risk (Yi et al, 2015). W estwood, Sparrow and Leung (2001) found the dynamics of TPC of junior and senior management from Hong Kong proved, from a western perspective, to be extremely one sided. It seemed the underlying sense of duty and respect which is deep-seated in Chinese culture is reflected in the attitude of the employee, who believes they are more obligated to their employer than their employer is to them. This is in direct contradiction of the western findings of Rousseau (2004) who stated that the employer was the dependant variable and the employee the independent, highlighting the cultural disparity in how TPC is viewed. Not only is the holistic view of TPC likely to be different depending on the cultural context, there are likely to be international differences in the extent to which employees respond to a breach of TPC (Lucas, Lupton and Mathison, 2006), not only making it harder for managers to balance the psychological contract within the confines of foreign cultures, but also making it mor e difficult for management to predict what retaliation, if any, is likely to occur. A huge challenge facing managers can occur when they are of a different cultural profile to the employees they are managing, due to the commonality of difference in both motivation and interpretation of the parties (Thomas, Au and Ravlin, 2003). As a result it is recommended that organisations with cross cultural management practices give time to understanding the complexities of TPC within their workforce, and work hard to ensure that it can remain balanced. Conclusion The importance of an organisation managing the psychological contract within a western cultural context is well documented within HRM discourse, allowing organisations to reap the rewards of improved employee relations (Tekleab Taylor, 2000), and mitigate the risks associated with PC breach (Piccoli and De Witte, 2015). If an organisation does not manage TPC negative work behaviours such as withholding effort or employee deviance could become typical for the organisations workforce (Bankins, 2015) causing loss of competitive advantage. The main challenges with managing TPC in the contemporary employment relationship stem from the widening generational and cultural diversity experienced in many workforces due to the global aging population and globalisation. HRM discourse is primarily based on western cultural assumptions, many of which do not hold true in other cultural contexts (Wilton, 2013). This presents challenges for managers working outside of their own culture or wor king within a multicultural society. Due to the unwritten and unspoken nature of TPC any organisation would be advised to adequately research the expectations of employees in any foreign context in which they plan to engage, in order to avoid discrepancy. It can be argued that HRM practices developed within the western culture offer ineffective ways to manage labour in divergent cultural settings, constituting a possible area for further research. The growing generational diversity of the global workforce presents difficulty for organisations seeking to implement policies to manage TPC (Cogin, 2012), due to differing generational expectations. Thus to effectively manage such a diverse workforce time must be taken to individualise TPC (Lub et al, 2015). Managing TPC in the individualised manner required of a culturally and generationally diverse global workforce has the potential to be both financially and time intensive. Organisations should therefore analyse the potential imp lications of non-effective management of TPC before adopting this policy. Consideration should be given to the individual organisational culture, as in organisations with a more competitive and aggressive culture the implications for not managing TPC can be extremely serious, with heightened likelihood of employee revenge (Restubog et al, 2015). Such an organisation would therefore be ill advised to not pursue a policy of PC management. References Adamson, S., Dochetry, N., and Viney, C., (1998). The meanings of career revisited. British Journal of Management. 9 (1), 251-259. Atkinson, C., (2007). Trust and the psychological contract. Employee Relations. 29 (3), 227-246. Argyris, C., (1960). Understanding Organizational Behaviour. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press. Bankins, S., (2015). A process perspective on psychological contract change: Making sense of, and repairing, psychological contract breach and violation through employee coping actions. Journal of Organizational Behaviour. 3 (1), 1-17 Bains, G., (2015). Empirical evidence on employer branding and its impact on the formation of psychological contract. JIMS8M: The Journal of Indian Management Strategy. 20 (2), 28-35. Bal, P. M., Chiaburu, D. S., and Jansen, P. G. W., (2010). Psychological contract breach and work performance. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 25, 252-273. Blau, P. M., (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York, NY: John Wiley S ons. Bordia, P., Restubog, S. L. D., and Tang, R. L., (2008). When employees strike back: Investigating the mediating mechanisms between psychological contract breach and workplace deviance. Journal of Applied Psychology. 93 (1), 1104-1117. Bowen, J. T., (2015). Common Themes across Social Media Research. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes. 7 (3), 46-58. Chartered Institute of Personal Development (CIPD) (2009). Employee engagement factsheet. London: CIPD. -. Cogin, J., (2012). Are generational differences in work values fact or fiction? Multi-country evidence and implications. The International Journal of Human Resource Management. 23 (3), 2268-2294. Cullinane, N., and Dundon, T., (2006). The psychological contract, a critical review. International journal of management reviews. 8 (2), 113-129. Dawson, P., and Andriopoulos, C., (2014) Managing change, creativity and innovation. London: Sage. Decktop, J., Mangel, R., and Cirka, C., (1999). Getting more tha n you paid for: Organisational citizenship behaviour and pay-for-performance plans. Academy of Management Journal. 42 (4), 420-428. Gerber, M., Grote, G., Geiser, C., and Raeder, S., (2012). Managing psychological contracts in the era of the new career. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. 21 (2), 195-221. Gouldner, A. W., (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review. 25 (2), 161-178. Guest, D.E., and Conway, N., (2002). Communicating the psychological contract: an employer perspective, Human Resource Management Journal. 12 (2), 132-149. Hertel, G., and Zacher, H., (2015). Managing the aging workforce. Handbook of Industrial, Work, Organizational Psychology. 2 (1), 1-93. Heuvel, S., Schalk, R., and Assen, M., (2015) Does a Well-Informed Employee Have a More Positive Attitude Toward Change? The Mediating Role of Psychological Contract Fulfilment, Trust, and Perceived Need for Change. Journal of applied behav ioural science. 51 (3). 401 422 Hui, C., Lee, C., and Wang, H., (2015). Organizational inducements and employee citizenship behaviour: The mediating role of perceived insider status and the moderating role of collectivism. Human Resource Management. 54 (3), 439-436. Jones, J. (2015). Developing Social Media Policies: A Team Learning Approach. . Cases on Strategic Social Media Utilization in the Nonprofit Sector. 1 (2), 210. Lapalme, M. ÃÆ'ˆ., Simard, G., and Tremblay, M., (2011). The influence of psychological contract breach on temporary workers commitment and behaviours: A multiple agency perspective. Journal of business and psychology. 26 (3), 311-324. Lub, X., Bal, M., Blomme, R., and Schalk, R., (2015). One job, one dealà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦or not: do generations respond differently to psychological contract fulfilment?. The International Journal of Human Resource Management. 1 (1), 1-28. Lucas, R., Lupton, B., and Mathison, H., (2006). Human Resource Management in an international context. London: CIPD. 1-326. Lyons, S. T., and Kuron, L. K. J., (2014). Generational differences in the workplace: A review of the evidence and directions for future research. Journal of Organizational Behaviour. 35 (7), 180-207. Mazzei, A., (2010). Promoting active communication behaviours through internal communication.. Corporate Communications: An International Journal. 15 (3), 221-234. Montes, S. D., and Zweig, D., (2009). Do promises matter? An exploration of the role of promises in psychological contract breach. The Journal of Applied Psychology. 94 (5), 1243-1260. Piccoli, B., and De Witte, H., (2015). Job insecurity and emotional exhaustion: Testing psychological contract breach versus distributive injustice as indicators of lack of reciprocity. Work Stress. 1 (1), 1-18 Restubog, S., Bordia, P., and Bordia, S., (2011). Investigating the role of psychological contract breach on career success: Convergent evidence from two longitudinal stu dies. Journal of Vocational Behaviour. 7 (1), 428-437 Restubog, S., Zagenczyk, T., Bordia, P., Bordia, S., and Champan, G., (2015). If You Wrong Us, Shall We Not Revenge? Moderating Roles of Self-Control and Perceived Aggressive Work Culture in Predicting Responses to Psychological Contract Breach. Journal of Management. 41 (4), 1132-1154. Rousseau, D.M., (1995) Psychological contracts in organizations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Rousseau, D. M., (2004). Psychological contracts in the workplace: Understanding the ties that motivate. The Academy of Management Executive. 18 (1), 120-127 Ryan, A. M., and Wessel, J. L., (2015). Implications of a changing workforce and workplace for justice perceptions and expectations. Human Resource Management Review. 25 (2), 162-175. Schein, E. H., (1985). Increasing organisational effectiveness through better human resource planning and development. Readings in Human Resource Management, 376. Taylor, S., (2005). People Resourcing. 3rd ED. London. Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. Tekleab, A. G., and Taylor, M. S., (2000). Easing the pain: Determinants and effects of psychological contract violations. Paper presented at the Academy of Management meeting, Toronto, Canada. Thomas, D., Au, K., and Ravlin, E., (2003). Cultural variation and the psychological contract. Journal of organisational behaviour. 24 (1), 451-471. Westwood, R., Sparrow, P., and Leung, A., (2001). Challenges to the psychological contract in Hong Kong. The International Journal of Human Resource Management. 12 (4), 621-651. Wilton, N., (2013) An Introduction to Human Resource Management. 2nd. London: SAGE. ISBN Yi, X., Ribbens, B., Fu, L., and Cheng, W., (2015). Variation in career and workplace attitudes by generation, gender, and culture differences in career perceptions in the United States and China. Employee Relations, 37 (1), 66-82.

Pol 201 Week 2 Complete Assignment - 1955 Words

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Proper communication skills as well as leadership skills of manager will help in controlling the conversations among the members. Norming- In this phase, the team members tries to resolve their differences and value the opinions of each other. Proper scheduling of project facilitates in making progress in project as all the members begins in working more effectively. Performing- The team member performs at high level in this stage. However motivation skills of project managers encourages the team members in producing through effective working practices. At present situation, the team leaders face huge challenges in growing the company and expanding their business. The role consultation involves executive coaching aspects for the team leaders by focusing on their requirements (Wheelan 2014). The main objective of Mitel Network is to make effective system of communication. Proper coaching to the leaders will help them in integrating their leadership skills in proper way, which in turn will benefit the organization in improving their overall productivity. It also aids the leaders in refining their business strategy for achieving success in the business. Consultation requires exchange of ideas as well as views influencing the employees and companys interest. In our workplace, both the management and the unions place few limits on the range of subjects that is open to consultation. In Defra organization, the consultation policy is guided by informal external stakeholder group and uses digital crowdsourcing for facilitating engagement with their stakeholders. Similarly, DCMS has utilized technology for increasing their engagement with the public. They have launched informal call for ideas on UK digital strategy. Performance plan Team Performance Plan Objective: What needs to be achieved, to what standard and within what timeframe? Actions What are the major steps that need to be taken to achieve your team objective? (max of four steps) Timeline What are the end dates for each separate action? Responsibilities What roles will team members need to take in order for the objective to be achieved? Who will be responsible for which actions or key steps? Resources What materials equipment, systems, processes and / or funds will be required? Review dates What are the major review dates where progress can be checked by the team? What are the major milestone dates that will require progress checks, review or signoff? Setting goals- The company should use SMART in setting their goals The goals of the project should be set in the beginning. The end date is 15th January the team members must understand the goal and set their target accordingly The goals must be set according to the total fund for the project. The progress must be checked at 17th January Developing a specific team plan and roles of each member The time frame for implementing this action is 18th January to 15th February Each member should work collaborately. Project leader through computerized technology should develop the plan. The review dates will be 31st January Explaining the responsibility of each team member by ensuring that their role are suitable with respect to skills The time frame for this taking this action is 20th February to 28th February The team members should properly communicate with the leader if they face any difficulty. Before giving the responsibility to each member, their skills must be checked through different test. The review dates for this action will be 25th February Monitoring the work for achieving success in project The work should be monitored after two weeks of project initiation (1st April, 2017) Each member should be focused in work and deliver their best Software systems will help the manager in monitoring the project. The review dates in this case will be 15th April. Indicators or measures of success: Foundational trust Shared commitment Collective accountability Results tilting Potential barriers: Workplace environment, team member ego, poor communication Dependencies: The dependencies problems are peer- to peer collaboration among members, backlog of product feature etc. Team Member Determined Outcomes Agreed responsibilities Standard to be achieved How the task will be measured 1 Harry Launching the product though innovative advertising program by October 25 consult with the team lead before implementing the idea Meeting the requirements of target customers Increase in ale of the product by December 30 2 Peter Inventing new product in the market by January 31st Personal ideas to be consulted with other team members and manager Understanding the preferences and needs of customers Attraction of new customers and improving the brand value by July 25th 3Harrison Opening of new branch in the international market Working unitedly with other members Competitors and target audience to be analysed before opening the branch in that location Completion of project within scheduled time Supporting the team members a) Coaching aids in supporting their employees in pursuing innovative ideas as well as alternative solutions with higher resilience (Hoch and Kozlowski 2014). It also helps the team members in developing their communication skills and creates clarity in the business goals. In addition, the team members benefits from coaching as it stabilizes work-life balance. This in turn improves the job performance of each team member. b) Mentoring programs offers an effective way in growing the career path of the employees. This in turn reduces the turnover cost and keeps the staff in striving for the best. This program grooms the employees in playing vital roles in companys succession plan (Katzenbach and Smith 2015) The recommendations for improving the mentoring program are given below: Clarify as well as specify the target to individual team member Building flexibility in the mentoring program Developing orientation program The mentoring programs are effective to the each organization. This effectiveness includes- Workers productivity- workers participating in this program have effectual mechanism in reinventing solutions for common problems , which in turn increases productivity. Quality of work- this program helps in improving the internal process of organizations and hence improves quality of work. Suggestion schemes- This strategy encourages the members in coming up with unique suggestion or ideas and this adds value to companys functions. Job enrichment- Expansion of job content as well as giving rewards to job profile is one of the best strategy in keeping members involved in decision making. Collective bargaining- this strategy indicates the team participation through collective agreements by following specific rules. Conclusion From the above report, it can be concluded that team work is effective for every business as it aids in achieving success. The team leaders pays vital role in creating efficient team work. Implementation of proper strategy as well as new technology will improve the team performance and attain business goal. References Belbin, R.M., 2012.Team roles at work. Routledge. Crawford, E.R. and Lepine, J.A., 2013. A configural theory of team processes: Accounting for the structure of taskwork and teamwork.Academy of Management Review,38(1), pp.32-48. Daspit, J., Justice Tillman, C., Boyd, N.G. and Mckee, V., 2013. Cross-functional team effectiveness: An examination of internal team environment, shared leadership, and cohesion influences.Team Performance Management: An International Journal,19(1/2), pp.34-56. Deneckere, S., Euwema, M., Van Herck, P., Lodewijckx, C., Panella, M., Sermeus, W. and Vanhaecht, K., 2012. Care pathways lead to better teamwork: Results of a systematic review.Social science Hoch, J.E. and Kozlowski, S.W., 2014. Leading virtual teams: Hierarchical leadership, structural supports, and shared team leadership.Journal of applied psychology,99(3), p.390. Katzenbach, J.R. and Smith, D.K., 2015.The wisdom of teams: Creating the high-performance organization. Harvard Business Review Press. Thamhain, H.J., 2013. Changing dynamics of team leadership in global project environments.American Journal of Industrial and Business Management,3(2), p.146. West, M.A., 2012.Effective teamwork: Practical lessons from organizational research Wheelan, S.A., 2014.Creating effective teams: A guide for members and leaders. Sage Publications. Woehr, D.J., Arciniega, L.M. and Poling, T.L., 2013. Exploring the effects of value diversity on team effectiveness.Journal of Business and Psychology,28(1), pp.107-121.

Phoenix Jackson By Eudora Welty Essay Example For Students

Phoenix Jackson By Eudora Welty Essay Phoenix Rises From the Ashes When asked by a white hunter Doesnt the gunscare you? while having it pointed at her, Phoenix Jackson, of EudoraWeltys A Worn Path, replies No, sir. I seen plenty go off closer by,in my day, and for less than what I done, This is an example of how theprotagonist deals with another of her travails. Phoenixs conflicts only honethe thrust of Weltys tale of triumph over adversity. The irrelevancy of thesetortures to this persons purpose is made all the more poignant by theirstaggering weight. From the first line of the narrative you learn the setting isDecember. A frozen day, and yet Phoenix does ought but rejoice that it isnot the season for bulls and snakes. Given the numerous references to heradvanced age: a delusion of a small boy handing her a slice of cake afternavigating a log bridge, to Her eyes blue with age. She travels from thedeep wood though the dangers of both terrain and prejudice. Throughout the storyshe encounters obstacles that would deter stalwart heroes of epics. Whiletraveling through the country Phoenix encounters a white hunter who helps her upafter being knocked to the ground. Despite his threatening manner, pointing hisgun at her, he tries to deter her from her task. He points out the distance shehad to travel even to reach the point at which they had met. He callouslyexplains that I know you old colored people! Wouldnt miss going to town tosee Santa Claus!. Lastly to add further injury to insult, after losing anickel and not being aware of it, he claims to not have a penny to give her. AllPhoenix does is apologize to God for having stolen it. What fear grips aperson who knows what they were doing was incredibly important, and yet theycannot recall what they were about? The attendant repeatedly attempted tocommunicate (in a condescending tone) with Phoenix, yet she had to ignore thequestions, for she was unsure why she had made the journey. The nurse came toher rescue, and in so doing gave an explanation why gr andma had made thisarduous voyage. She was caring for her grandson who was suffering from theresult of having swallowed lye; consequently at that level of medical and socialevolution meant being an invalid without any other sociological resources thanhis grandmother. Despite these travails Phoenix Jackson retains her composure,and more. Each of these incidents, although difficult to fully grasp withincontext of modern society, is still painful. Once she manages to reach town shemanages to get a woman, busy with packages to assist her with one of herdifficulties, her untied shoe. At the clinic she manages to push the attendantto 500% of her original offering. Subsequently she resolves to purchase hergrandson a paper windmill with the two nickel profit she made entering town. These conflicts she faces only reflect the spirit shining from the character ofPhoenix Jackson. BibliographyWelty, Eudora . A Worn Path. Literature an Introduction to reading andWriting . Ed. Edgar V. Roberts, Henry E, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1998. 132-37.

The Book Our Town Is A Play Written By Thorton Wilder In 1938. The Pla

The book Our Town is a play written by Thorton Wilder in 1938. The play uses very little props and makes the audience use their imagination. People all are very different but they all experience the same things. The daily life is mostly the same for all people across the world. In the play Ms. Gibbs wakes up the kids. She makes them breakfast and packs their lunch. The Greeks did the same for their kids. Also in the play, the letter that Jane Crowfort got was addressed to the world, the universe, and everything in gods mind. That proves that Wilder is trying to state that everyone goes through waking their kids up and fixing them breakfast. Another thing that most people go through or experience is love and marriage. In this part of the play Wilder uses flashbacks to show how this happened. George is scared of growing up and getting married to Emily. His mom, Ms. Gibbs, said that when Doc Gibbs and her were getting married they felt that they wouldn't have nothing to talk about. In the beginning of Act II the stage manager says ? Almost everybody in the world gets married-you know what I mean( Wilder 535). That is how Wilder states that everyone experiences love and marriage. People take life for granted while they live and do not appreciate life until they are gone. In this act Wilder lets Emily go back in time. Ms. Gibbs told Emily to go to the least important day of her life. Emily went to her twelve birthday. When she arrived at her house she was overwhelmed of how her mom looked at that age. Emily wanted her mom to look into her eyes for one last time. Ms. Gibbs didn't so Emily went back to the grave yard. Emily told her mom that they don't understand. Ms. Gibbs said that they don't. They were talking about living don't understand about life until they are dead. All three acts are about common experiences that everyone goes through. Wilder named the play Our Town because it could happen in any town in the world. Wilder says ?an attempt to find a value above all price for the smallest event in our daily life.?( Wilder Notes n.p.). This means that we all experience the same things in life, no matter what it is.